3.4 Normative views of leadership and the place of intersectionality
Many writers identify that a normative view of leadership as a male pursuit inevitably impacts on women who seek, and those who access, leadership positions. Half the English women head teachers surveyed in 2004 ‘were aware of resentment and/or surprise from peers, colleagues and others in finding a woman in the position of headteacher’ (Lumby with Coleman, 2007: 46). Furthermore, there is a stereotype of hegemonic masculinity that consciously and unconsciously influences our expectations of what a leader ‘should be’. The “think leader, think male” perspective was uncovered by organizational culture writers in past decades (see Schein, 1973) and recent research suggests these stereotypes are still prevalent in the workplace making it doubly difficult for women to indicate a wish for career development whilst keeping within social norms for female behaviour.
As a result, women, and others who do not correspond to the normative leader stereotype may feel, and be regarded by others, as outsiders in a leadership role (Coleman, 2012; Lynch and Feeley, 2009; Reynolds, 2002). Managers may perceive women as having lower levels of career motivation in comparison to men because agentic, achievement oriented traits associated with career-related motivation are often ascribed to males. When women exhibit these behaviours, they find themselves judged negatively in contrast with men for whom such behaviour is more socially acceptable (Heilman and Okimoto, 2007; Hoobler et al., 2009; Hoober et al., 2014; Jago and Vroom, 1982; Sools, Van Engen, and Baerveldt, 2007). These social expectations also influence relationships between women (Mavin, Grandy and Williams, 2014). Other writers identify a need to challenge and disrupt those idealisations of leadership which support continuing inequity (Blackmore, 2010; Niesche and Keddie, 2011).